The
Account Concerning
Ardashlr
Bahman and
His
Daughter Khumanl
Bishtasb was succeeded by his grandson Ardashir Bahman.
They say that on his coronation day he said, "We uphold loyalty
and we compensate our subjects generously." He was
called Ardashlr the Mighty, 231 and was nicknamed thus, so it
is said, because he took whatever was within reach in the
surrounding kingdoms, and thus ruled all the climes. It is said
that he built a city in the Sawad and named it Abad Ardashlr.
This is the village known (today) as Humaniyyah on the Upper
Zab. 233 In the Tigris region he built a city and named it
Bahman Ardashir, which is (today) Ubullah. 234 He set out
for Sijistan to avenge his father, slew Rustam and Rustam's father
232. The term used in Arabic, al-tawil al-ba', may be
translated "powerful",
as done here. The original Persian term daiaz-dast, which
literally means, like
the Arabic expression, "of long hands,
longimanus," signifies "oppressive, rapacious." See Bal'ami,
Tarikh, 683.
233. The place name Abad-Ardashir, which means "the
inhabited place of
Ardashir," in not preserved. The text has Humayniya,
to be read Humayniyya,
also known as Humaniyyah, possibly from the Iranian
divine name Wahuman.
See LeStrange, Lands, 37 ; O. Blau, ZDMG, 27 (1873),
295-363, esp. 325; T.
Noldeke, ZDMG, 28 (1874), 93-102, esp. 94 m 1.
234. On al-Ubullah, ancient Apologos, see LeStrange,
Lands, 46f. ; Oppenheimer, Babylonia Judaica, 253!.
82
The Ancient Kingdoms
Dastan, his brother Azwarah, 235 and his son Faramurz. 236
Ardashir levied huge taxes to maintain the army and to sustain
the clergy, the fire sanctuaries and so forth. He was the father
of Darius (Dara) the Great and Sasan, 23 ' the progenitor of the
other Persian kings, that is, Ardashir son of Babak, and his
sons. Khumani, 238 the daughter of Bahman, was the mother of
Darius.
Hisham b. Muhammad relates: After Bishtasb, there ruled
Ardashir Bahman b. Isfandiyar b. Bishtasb. He was, as they
mention, humble, and well liked. His messages were issued,
"From Ardashir, worshiper of God, servitor of God who guides
your affairs." It is said that with a million soldiers he
waged
war on the invading Romans. A source other than Hisham
reports: Bahman died before the birth of Darius. Khumani was
made queen, out of gratitude to her father Bahman, and the
kings of the earth continued to pay tribute to Bahman. He is
said to have been the most distinguished and successful Persian
king; his writings and messages excelled those of Ardashir
and his age.
Bahman's mother was Asturya, that is Esther, the daughter
of Jair 239 b. Shimei b. Kish b. Misha b. King Saul (Talut) b.
Kish b. Abiel b. Zeror b. Becorath b. Aphiah b. Jesse b.
Benjamin b. Jacob b. Isaac b. Abraham, God's friend.
The mother of Bahman's son was the slave Rahab bint Pinchas,
of the children of Rehoboam b. Solomon b. David.
Bahman appointed Rahab's brother Zerubabel b. Shealtiel king
over the Israelites, transferred to him the office of
the exilarch, and returned him to Palestine, upon Rahab's request.
240 Bahman died and left (the following) offspring:
two sons, Darius the Great and Sasan, and daughters Khumani,
who ruled after him, and Franik 241
235. The name Azwarah occurs as Zuwarah or Zawarah in the
Shahnfnnah.
See Justi, Iran Nb, 337, s.v. Uzwarak.
236. Faramurz occurs in the Shahtiamab with a long vowel
in the second syl-
lable. See Justi, Iran Nb, 90.
237. These persons occur further on in the book.
238. On Khumani see Justi, Iran Nb, 132, s.v. Huma, No.
2.
239. In Jewish sources Mordechai is listed as the son of
Jair. See Esther 2:5; I
Samuel 9:1. See also Ginzberg, Legends, VII, 320.
240. Ezra 2:2; 3:2,8.
241. Text reads Farik; Franik seems to be the reading to
be preferred here (the
The Account Concerning Ardahir Bahman
83
and Bahman Dukht . 242 "Bahman" translated into Arabic
means "the well-intentioned . 243 He ruled for 112 years. As
for
Hisham b. al-Kalbl, he says that Bahman's reign lasted eighty
years.
KhumanI, Bahman's daughter, succeeded to the throne. As
some authorities mentioned, they made her queen out of love
for her father Bahman, out of gratitude for his benevolence, and
because of her excellent mind and beauty, and her vigor and
valor. She was nicknamed Shahrazad . 244
One authority said that KhumanI reigned after her father
Bahman. When she was pregnant with Darius the Elder, she
asked Bahman to' crown the yet unborn child and grant him
preference to the throne. He complied, and made the unborn
child crown prince. Sasan , 245 Bahman 's other son, was at the
time an adult, and had no doubt as to his future kingship. But
when Sasan saw what his father had done in this respect, he
traveled to Istakhr, became an ascetic, and abandoned his
earlier life-style. He practiced piety, acquired some sheep, and he
himself tended his animals. The people considered his behavior
disgraceful, and were shocked by it. They said, "Sasan has
become a shepherd." This is why people connected him to
shepherding . 246 Sasan's mother was the daughter of Shealtiel(?)
third consonant is uncertain in the manuscripts). See
Justi, Iran Nb, 106, s.v.
Freni, No. 8.
242. Bahman-dukht simply means "the daughter of
Bahman" and does not
look like a genuine personal name. See Justi, Iran Nb,
375, s.v. Wohu-Mananh
(Ableitungen und Zusammensetzungen No. 2).
243. Bahman is a late development of the form Vohu Manah,
which means
"possessor of a good mind." It is the name of
one of the Amahraspands, the divine beings forming the retinue of Ohrmazd. A
man who possesses this quality
and in whom Bahman dwells is, among other things,
peaceful and generous,
and he helps the poor (see Shaked, Wisdom, 29, para. 78).
244. The proper form of this name, as can be seen from
the variants and the
parallel versions, is Chihrazad, which means
approximately "one whose countenance is noble." The name is derived
from an epithet of the goddess Anahita. See Justi, Iran Nb, 163, s.v.
£ihrazad.
245. Sasan is the reputed ancestor of the Sasanian
dynasty, that ruled Iran
from about A.D. 224 to the Arab conquest. The story of
Sasan as given here
and in other sources makes him a direct descendant of the
Achaemenids. This
is done at the cost of ignoring the centuries which
separate Darius (522-486
B.C.) from Ardashir, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty.
On the name Sasan
see Frye, History, 2S4I; CHI 3(1), n6f.
246. The romance of Ardashir, describing the origins of
the dynasty of the
84
The Ancient Kingdoms
b. Jochanan b. Oshia b. Amon b. Manasseh b. Hezekiah b.
Ahaz b. Jotham b. Uzziah b. Joram b. Jehoshaphat b. Abijah b.
Rehoboam b. Solomon b. David.
They say that Bahman died before his son Darius was born to
Khumani; she gave birth to Darius a few months after she ascended
to the throne. She refused to expose the matter. She
therefore put the child in a coffer and floated it on the Kurr
River of Istakhr, adding a precious jewel.
Another source says: It was the Balkh River, and the coffer
reached a miller of Istakhr who had lost a young child. When
the man found the coffer, he brought it to his wife, and she
rejoiced in the child because he was beautiful and because the
thing that was found along with him was precious. They
nursed him. Later, when the boy grew up, the incident became
known, and Khumani admitted her wrongdoing in exposing
him to danger. When he matured, he was tested and was found
extremely well endowed with princely character. She then
transferred the crown to him, and he took charge of the realm.
Khumani left, settled in Fars, built the city of Istakhr, and
sent army after army against Rome. She was victorious,
subduing enemies, while preventing them from seizing any of her
territory. The subjects enjoyed prosperity and comfort during
her reign. When Khumani raided Roman territory, many prisoners
were taken and brought to her country. She ordered the
builders among them to build for her within the area of Istakhr,
tall, wondrous Roman-type structures. One of these is in
Istakhr; another is on the through route to Darabjird, a farsakh
(six km) from this city; the third, four farsakhs (twenty-four
km) away on the road to Khurasan. 147 She sought to please
Almighty God, and was granted aid and victory. She eased the
burden of taxation on her subjects. Her reign lasted thirty
years.
Sasanians, makes him grow up as a shepherd, his royal
descent being at first
unrecognized.
247. For Darabjird see LeStrange, Lands, i88f,, 294, 296.
*
The
History of the Israelites and the
Synchronization
of Their Chronological
Data
with Those of the Persian Kings
We have previously mentioned that some of the Israelite
captives who were brought by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylonia went
to Jerusalem, and that this happened in the days of Cyrus b.
Ahasuerus and during Cyrus's reign in Babylonia on behalf of
Bahman b. Isfandiyar during Bahman's lifetime. It continued
for years after Bahman's death in the reign of his daughter
Khumani. We also mentioned that Khumani lived twenty-six
years after the death of Cyrus b. Ahasuerus. In all, her reign
was thirty years. The period during which Jerusalem lay in
ruins, from the destruction by Nebuchadnezzar to its
rebuilding, was seventy years, according to the Jews, the
Christians,
and scholars of history. All of the period falls partly in the days
of Bahman b. Isfandiyar b. Bishtasb b. Luhrasb, and partly in
the days of Khumani, as explained previously in the present
work.
Some have asserted that Cyrus (Kirash) was actually Bishtasb.
But others deny this,
saying: Kay Arash 248 was, rather,
248. The name of Cyrus was not preserved in the Iranian
historical and legendary sources available to Tabari and his contemporaries. It
occurs in the biblical account of the rebuilding of Jerusalem after the
Babylonian exile. Tabari,
or one of the authorities on which he relies, tries to
harmonize the Jewish and
Iranian accounts by identifying Cyrus either with
Bishtasb (Wishtaspa), a
86
The Ancient Kingdoms
the uncle of Bishtasb's grandfather; or, Kay Arash was the
brother of Kayqawus b. Kayabiwah b. Kayqubadh the Great,
and King Bishtasb was the son of Kayluhrasb b. Kayuji b. Kaymanush
b. Kayqawus b. Kayabiwah b. Kayqubadh the Great.
Kay Arash never reigned; he was merely appointed to rule
Khuzistan and the contiguous Babylonian territory on behalf of
(692] Kayqawus and on behalf of Kaykhusraw b. Siyawakhsh b.
Kayqawus, and, after that, on behalf of Luhrasb. He (Cyrus) had
a long life and was a man of great consequence. When Jerusalem
was rebuilt and its people, the Israelites, returned there,
Ezra was among them. 1 have already described what happened
to him and to the Israelites. The ruler over them was an appointee
of the Persians, either a Persian or an Israelite. This
was the case until their region came under the rule of the
Greeks and the Romans following the victory of Alexander,
and the assassination of Darius, the son of Darius (the Elder).
All occurred, it is said, within a period of eighty-eight years.
historical ancestor of Darius, or with Kay Arash, whose
name sounds similar
enough to Koresh (the Hebrew form of the name Cyrus).
The
Account of Darius [Dara] the Elder and
His
Son Darius the Younger.
How
He Perished and the Account of
Alexander
[Dhu-l-Qamayn ] 249
Darius b. Bahman b. Isfandiyar b. Bishtasb became king. He
was nicknamed Jihrazad, 250 meaning, noble-natured. They say
that he dwelt in Babylon, that he sternly administered his
realm, and that he subdued the kings around him and they paid
him tribute. He built in Fars a city which he called Darabjird.
He cut the tails of the riding beasts (that carried) the royal
mail 251 and arranged the animals in proper order. He was
amazed by his son Darius. Because of his love for him, he
named him after himself and designated him as successor to
the throne. He had a wazir, Rastin 252 by name, a man of fine
mind. But intrigue and enmity arose between Rastin and a
youth called Bin 253 who was raised with the younger Darius. [693]
249. See n. 227 above.
250. This is the same name as Shahrazad, discussed above,
n. 244.
251. On the postal system in the Parthian period, see CHI
3(1), 564.
252. The name is unpointed, but is probably to be read as
Rashnin. See fusti,
Iran Nb, 259, s.v. RaSnin.
253. Perhaps, as surmised by Justi, Iran Nb, 252, s.v.
Pin, this is to be read
88
The Ancient Kingdoms
Rastin slandered him to the king, and it is said that the king
gave Biri a drink from which he died. The prince bore a grudge
against the wazir and the group of military commanders who
had supported the wazir against Biri. Darius reigned for twelve
years.
He was succeeded by his son, Darius b. Darius b. Bahman.
His mother was Mahiyahind 254 the daughter of Hazarmard 255
b. Bihradmah. At his coronation Darius said, "We shall neither
force anyone into the abyss of destruction, nor hold back one
who tumbles into it." It is said that he built the city of
Dara
(Darius) in the Jazirah. He employed Bin's brother and made
him wazir, because of his sympathy for him and his brother.
But the wazir instigated the king against his aides and induced
him to kill a number of them. This angered the notables and
the public, and they loathed the king who was a heedless,
excitable, malicious, and violent young man.
According to Hisham b. Muhammad: After Darius b. Ardashir,
his son Darius ruled for fourteen years. He mistreated his
subjects and slew their leaders, and Alexander attacked him at
that time. The people of his realm were fed up with him and
detested him, and they wished to be rid of him. Many of their
leaders and dignitaries joined Alexander. By exposing Darius's
weak points, they strengthened the invader. In the Jazirah, the
contenders met and battled for a year. Then some of the intimates
of Darius pounced upon him, slew him, and brought his
head to Alexander. He ordered that they be put to death, saying,
"This is the reward for him who dares an attempt on his
king's life." Alexander married Darius's daughter, Rushanak.
He invaded India and the lands to the east, after which he withdrew,
intending to go to Alexandria. But he died in the region
of the Sawad, and his remains were taken to Alexandria in a
gold casket — his reign had lasted fourteen years. Greek rule
254. The correct reading of the name is probably
Mah-(A)nahid, combining
two divine names into a compound personal name,
"Moon-Anahita ( =
Venus)." See Justi, Iran Nb, 187, s.v. Mah-nahid
(where a different explanation
of the name is given).
255. Hazarmard may mean "equal to a
thousandjmen." See Justi, Iran Nb,
128. The father's name should be read Bih-dad-mah, the
first part signifying
"follower of the Good Law." Mah (Mah) may mean
either "moon" or
"greater".
The Account of Darius
89
had become centralized, whereas before Alexander it was
dispersed; (on the other hand) Persian rule was dispersed, whereas
before Alexander it had been centralized.
According to a source other than Hisham: When Darius's
son Darius became king, he ordered a vast city to be built in
the Jazirah, and he named it Daranawa” it is called Dara 256
today. He also reports that Darius built and equipped it with
everything necessary, and that Philip, the father of Alexander
the Greek, reigned over a Greek land known as Macedonia and
other lands that he had occupied. He concluded a peace treaty
with Darius, under which he paid an annual tribute to the latter.
Philip died, and his son Alexander succeeded him, but he
did not send the tribute that his father used to send. This
brought the wrath of Darius upon him; Darius wrote to him
upbraiding him for the misdeed of stopping the payment of the
tribute his father used to pay, and so forth, and (saying) that it
was youth and ignorance that led him to withhold what his father
used to send in tribute. Darius sent to Alexander a polo
mallet ( sawlajan ), a ball, and a load of sesame. In a written
message he stated that Alexander was a boy, and that he should
play with the polo mallet and ball, but not function or parade
as a king. Should he not confine himself to this order, and
should he assume kingship and rebel, then he, Darius, would
send an emissary to fetch him in shackles; and (he stated) that
the soldiers of Darius were as numerous as the grains of sesame
(he) sent to Alexander.
In reply, Alexander wrote to Darius that he understood the
message. (He said) that he had looked at the polo mallet and
the ball sent to him, and saw therein a good omen (that is, he
would) throw the thrower of the ball to the mallet, and drag
him with the ball. He likened the earth to the ball, and declared
that he would drag the realm of Darius to his own kingdom
and country, (and this) into his domain. In the same light,
he viewed the sesame sent to him; although abundant, it
was neither bitter nor pungent. Along with his letter, he sent
Darius a sack of mustard and told him that what he was sending
was small in size but that in pungency, bitterness and
256. On Dara see LeStrange, Lands, 96.
90
The Ancient Kingdoms
strength, it equalled the gift of sesame, and that his army fully
answered this description.
When Alexander's message reached Darius, the latter assembled
his army and prepared to fight Alexander, who in turn
made preparations and set out toward the land of Darius. The
news thereof reached Darius who advanced to meet him. The
two forces met and engaged in the fiercest of battles; and fate
turned against the army of Darius. Two men of his guard ” it is
said they were of Hamadhan ” stabbed him from behind and
dragged him from his saddle. They expected thus to gain
Alexander's favor and good grace, but Alexander had announced
that Darius should be captured but not slain. When Alexander
was informed of the fate of Darius, he went to meet him, and
saw that he was about to die. Alexander dismounted, sat by the
head of Darius, and told him that it had never occurred to him
to slay him, and that what happened was not of his initiative.
He said to Darius, "Ask me for whatever you wish, and I shall
help you." Whereupon Darius said to him, "I have two requests.
First, take revenge upon the two who assaulted me,"
and he named them and their province; "second, marry my
daughter Rushanak." Alexander granted both requests. By his
order, the two men who attacked Darius were crucified; and he
married Rushanak. 257 He penetrated the realm of Darius and
became its ruler.
Some authorities on ancient history assert that this Alexander
who fought the younger Darius was a rebellious brother
of his and that the older Darius had married Alexander's
[697] mother, the daughter of the Greek king, and that her name was
Helen (Hali). 258 She was carried to her husband, the elder
Darius, but when he found her foul of odor and perspiration, he
sought a way to counter it. Authorities agreed that she was to
be treated with an emulsion of a tree called Sandar in Persian.
It was steamed and she bathed in it, and much of the foul odor
was removed, but not all of it. Because of that he refrained from
being with her. Finding her loathsome, he returned her to her
The Account of Darius
9i
people. She had become pregnant by him, however, and gave
birth while among her people, to a boy. She named him after
herself and after the tree in whose effusion she had bathed in
order to cure her malodorousness ” Helen-Sandarus. Such is
the origin of the name Alexander.
Darius the Elder died, and his son Darius the Younger took
over. The Greek kings had paid annual tribute to Darius the Elder
When the Greek king, Helen's father and Alexander's maternal
grandfather, passed away kingship passed to his daughter's son,
and Darius the Younger sent
him the customary
reminder, "You are late in paying us the usual tribute, which
was also paid by your predecessor. Send us the tribute of your
country or we shall declare war upon you." But the reply that
reached him was, "I slaughtered the hen, ate its meat, and
only
the extremities remained. If you wish, we shall leave you in
peace,- but if you wish, we shall come forth against you."
Thereupon, Darius loathed him and came forth to do battle
with him.
When the kings met in battle, two chamberlains of Darius
stabbed him, and Alexander sentenced the two chamberlains
(hajib) for the assassination. They had acted on their own, and
(thus) failed to secure their (own) safety. Alexander found
Darius smitten and he dismounted seeing the king in the
throes of death. Wiping the dust from the face of Darius, he
eased his head onto his lap and told him, "It is your two chamberlains
who have killed you ; I would like you, O noblest,
most generous King of Kings, to have been spared this fate.
Enjoin me whatever you may
wish." Darius then requested that
Alexander should marry his daughter Rushanak; that he
should take her unto himself, and perpetuate Persian nobility,
and not impose foreign rule upon the Persian nobility.
Alexander accepted his testament and acted accordingly. Then the
two assassins of Darius came to Alexander, who decided their
fate. He said to them, "I am fulfilling your stipulation (for
reward)
but there was no stipulation about your lives. I am putting you
to death; for it is proper that assassins of kings should
not be spared unless it be under inviolable guarantee." So he
had them put to death.
Some mention that the Greek king in the days of Darius the
92
The Ancient Kingdoms
Elder used to pay tribute to Darius. But that king died, and
Alexander became the Greek king. He was a resolute, strong,
and cunning man. It is said that he attacked some western
king, whom he defeated, and he therefore felt emboldened to
attack Darius the Younger and to stop paying the tribute his father
used to pay. This enraged Darius who wrote vehement
messages to Alexander. The relations between them soured,
and both moved toward battle. Fully prepared, they met at the
frontier, and exchanged communications and messengers.
Alexander was afraid to fight Darius; he called for reconciliation.
But Darius consulted his
aides, who bore a grudge against
Darius, and they extolled going to war.
Scholars have disagreed about the frontier and the site where
[699] they clashed. Some mention that it took place in the region
of
Khurasan, near the Khazars. The opposing forces engaged in
a fierce battle, so that the kings became involved. That day
Alexander was on a wondrous steed called Bukfarasb. 1 * 9 It is
said that a Persian attacked (Alexander); piercing the Greek
lines, he struck Alexander a blow with a sword, causing fear for
the king's life. Alexander admired the feat and exclaimed,
"That is a Persian horseman with proverbial valor!" But
the
grudges held by the men of Darius were at work. There were
two men of his guard from Hamadhan who had exchanged
messages with Alexander. They sought to deal treacherously
with Darius. Finally they stabbed him and, having inflicted a
lethal blow, they fled. It is said that when the horror occurred
and the news reached Alexander, he rode out with his retinue.
Reaching Darius, he found him in the throes of death.
Alexander spoke to him,- putting the dying man's head on his
lap, he wept over him, saying, "You were attacked from the
rear. You were alone among enemies and your trusted men be-
trayed you. Ask of me whatever you desire, for I am intent on
keeping close relations between us." He meant, so this source
maintained, the closeness between Salam and Hiraj, the sons
of Afridhun. 260
Horrified by what had happened to Darius, Alexander
259. Boucefalos means "bull-headed".
260. See El 2 , s.v. Farldun.
The Account of Darius
93
thanked God for his own safety. Darius then requested that his
daughter Rushanak be married to Alexander and be treated
with consideration and respect, and that his death be avenged.
Alexander agreed. Then the two men who had attacked Darius
came seeking their reward. Alexander ordered that they be beheaded
and crucified, and that an announcement be made,
"Such is the punishment of him who dares to raise a hand
against his king, and is disloyal to his people." They say
that
Alexander carried away (many) books” the learning of the
Persians on the sciences, the stars, and philosophy” after they
had been translated into Aramaic and then into Greek. 261
Some assert that at the time that Darius was slain he had
two sons, Ashak and Ardashir 262 and also a daughter, Rushanak.
The reign of Darius lasted fourteen years. Some (authorities)
mention that the tribute which Alexander's father
paid to the kings of Persia consisted of golden eggs. When
Alexander became king, Darius sent him a demand for that
payment but Alexander replied, "I have slain the hen which
used to lay those eggs, and I ate its meat. So declare war!"
Alexander reigned after Darius b. Darius. I have already mentioned
the view of those who say that Alexander was the
brother of Darius the Younger and the son of Darius the Elder.
As for the Greeks and many genealogists, they say that Alexander
was the son of Philip ” some say of Philip b. Metrius. It
is (also) said (that he was the) son of Masrim b. Hermes b.
Hardas b. Mitun b. Rum! b. Lanti b. Yunan b. Japhet b. Thubah
261. This statement derives from the Zoroastrian
tradition where it is maintained that Persian wisdom was carried away to Greece
by Alexander, which
explains why translations of philosophical and scientific
works from Greek
into Persian are merely an act of bringing what was
originally Persian wisdom
back to its source. A similar notion existed with regard
to translations of Indian writings to Persian. On the borrowings from Greek and
Indian lore into
Persian, see Bailey, Zoroastrian problems, 8 iff.
262. Ashak is the reputed ancestor of the Parthian
dynasty, the dynasty of
the Arsacids. Like the Sasanian dynasty, so also with
regard to the Arsacids,
Iranian historical traditions endeavored to connect them
genealogically with
their predecessors, the Achaemenids. See Justi, Iran Nb,
28, s.v. ArSaka, No. 9.
Ardashir is the founder of the Sasanian dynasty; although
according to his official genealogy he is the son of Papak and possibly
grandson of Sasan (or otherwise connected to the latter), he is here made out
to be the son of the last
Achaemenid monarch. See Justi, op. cit., 35, s.v.
Artax&aOra, No. 15.
94
The Ancient Kingdoms
b. Sarhun b. Rumyah b. Barbat b. Jubal b. RufI b. al-Asfar b.
Eliphaz b. Esau b. Isaac b. Abraham, God's friend. 253
After the death of Darius, Alexander annexed the empire
of Darius to his own kingdom, and ruled Iraq, Asia Minor
al-Rum, Syria, and Egypt. Following the death of Darius, he
reviewed his army; it is said that he found the army to consist of
1.400.000 men; of these 800,000 were of his own force, and
600.000 were from the (old) force of Darius. It is reported that
on the day he ascended the throne he said, "God granted us triumph
over Darius and granted us the opposite of Darius's
threats." Alexander destroyed the cities, fortresses, and fire
temples of the Persians. He slew their priests, and he burned
their books and the archives of Darius. Appointing some of his
aides as governors over the empire of Darius, he marched on
toward India where he slew its king and conquered its capital.
From there he marched toward China, and did there as he did
in India. The whole of the earth was his, and he ruled Tibet and
China. With four hundred men he entered the dark area near
the North Pole, and (he entered) the area of southern sun in
search of the Well of Immortality, He marched there for eighteen
days, then left and returned to Iraq. Alexander appointed
the diadochs ( muluk al-tawa'if), and he died on the road at
Shahrazur 254” he was thirty-six, some say. He was carried to
his mother at Alexandria.
As for the Persians, they assert that Alexander's reign lasted
fourteen years. The Christians assert that it lasted thirteen
years and some months, and that Darius was slain at the beginning
of the third year of Alexander's reign.
It is said that upon Alexander's command twelve cities were
constructed, each one of them named Alexandria. One of them
in Isbahan, called Jayy, was shaped like a serpent ( hayyah ).
Three towns were built in Khurasan, among them Harat,
Marw, and Samarqand. 255 In Babylonia he built a town for
263. This list combines elements taken from Jewish biblical sources
with
those whose origin is in Greek mythology.
264. A town in old Media, the Jibal district of Islamic
times. See LeStrange,
Lands, 190I.
265. On Herat see LeStrange, Lands, 407ft.; on Maru,
397ft-; on Samarqand,
463ft'
The Account of Darius
95
Rushanak, the daughter of Darius, and in the Greek territory in
Helakos he built a city for the Persians. He also built other
cities.
When Alexander died, the realm was offered to his son Alexander,
but he refused for he preferred piety and worship. They
say the Greeks made Ptolemy, the son of Lagos, king. He
reigned for thirty-eight years. The Greek age of the empire
continued from the time of Alexander until the Romans took over.
Religion and government under the Israelites in Jerusalem and
its environs was not monarchic in form,- then the Persians and
the Romans devastated their country, and banished them from
it after John the Baptist was slain.
After Ptolemy b. Lagos, Syria, Egypt and the lands to the
West (al-Maghrib) were ruled by Ptolemy Philadelphus for
forty years. After him, Ptolemy Euergetes ruled for twenty-four
years, and then Ptolemy twenty-one years, and then Ptolemy
Epiphanes ruled for twenty-one years. Then Ptolemy Euergetes
ruled for twenty-nine years, and Ptolemy Soter for seventeen
years. Ptolemy Alexander I ruled for eleven years. After him
ruled the Ptolemy who disappeared from the throne after eight
years. He was succeeded by Ptolemy Dionysos who ruled for
sixteen years. After him ruled Ptolemy Cleopatra for seventeen
years. All these were Greeks. Each of the kings following
Alexander was addressed as Ptolemy, just at the Persian rulers
were each addressed as Chosroes (Kisra). 266 All the Ptolemies
were called Mufqanis. 267
According to what is mentioned, after Cleopatra, Syria was
ruled by Rome alone. The first Roman to rule was Gaius Julius,
for five years. After him, Syria was ruled by Augustus for
fifty-six years. In the forty-third year of his reign Isa was
born. Three hundred and three years elapsed between the rise
of Alexander and the birth of Isa.
266. This is historically inaccurate. Kisra became a
general term for kings of
the Sasanian dynasty only in the Islamic period, as far
as we can tell, and not
during the reign of the Sasanians.
267. Possibly a distortion of "Macedonian". The
Ptolemies were of Macedonian origins.
The
Account of the Persians After
the
Death of Alexander
*
We return now to the history of the Persian empire.
Authorities on the history of the ancients disagree about the
ruler of the Sawad of Iraq after Alexander, and about the
number of regional princes ( muluk al-tawa'if ) who ruled in
Babylonia after him down to the emergence of Ardashir Babakan . 268
According to what I have been told, Hisham b. Muhammad
said that Seleucus Nicator and then Antiochus ruled after
Alexander . 149 He said that it was Seleucus who founded the
city of Antioch; also that these kings held sway over the region
of al-Kufah. They used to travel the routes of al-Jibal and the
regions of al-Ahwaz and Fars. Then a man called Ashak , 270 a son
of Darius the Elder, revolted — he was born and raised in
Rayy . 271 Assembling a large host, he moved against Antiochus.
The latter marched against him, and they met in the area
of Mosul . 272 Antiochus was slain, and Ashak seized the -
268. Ardashir ruled from ca. A.D. 226 to 240.
269. They ruled from 305 to 280 B.C. and from 280 to 211
B.C. respectively.
270. The Parthian kingdom existed from the mid-third
century B.C. to the
third century A.D. Ashak ruled about 247-21 1 B.C.
271. On al-Rayy in Media (al-Jibal), called Rhages by the
ancient Greeks, see
Le Strange, Lands, 214 ff.
272. Mosul, or, as the place is known in Arabic,
al-Mawsil, is in the medieval
province of al-Jazirah in Iraq, on the river Tigris. See
LeStrange, Lands, 86ff.
The Account of the Persians
97
Sawad. He then extended his control from Mosul to al-Rayy and
Isbahan. 273 The other regional princes were in awe of him
because of his genealogy, and they respected his record.
Recognizing his superiority,
they put his name first in their
messages, and he put his own name first in addressing them. 274
They called him king and sent gifts to him. Yet he neither appointed
nor dismissed any of them.
He was succeeded by Judharz, 275 the son of Ashakan. He is
the one who raided the Israelites the second time. According to
that which has been mentioned, the cause for God inflicting
him on them was that they had slain John the Baptist. Judharz
slew many of them, and they never regained anything like
their first commonwealth {jama’ah). God deprived them of
prophethood and visited humiliation upon them.
The Romans (Rum) led by their supreme king attacked Fars.
He sought to avenge there the death of Antiochus, king of
Babylonia, who had been slain by Ashak. The ruler of
Babylonia at the time was Balash, 275 the father of Ardawan, whom
Ardashir b. Babak had slain. Balash wrote to the regional
princes informing them of the campaign planned by the Romans
against their lands, and of the Roman forces which he
could not confront. He wrote that should he succumb,
the Romans would defeat all of them. Then the princes, each
according to his ability,
sent Balash men, arms, and money, so that he
amassed four hundred thousand men, and appointed as their
commander the prince of Hadr, 277 one of the princes who held
273. Isbahan is in the Jibal area, in ancient Media. It
is adjacent to the town
of Jay (older Gabe). See LeStrange, Lands, 2oiff. ; El 2
, s.v. Isfahan.
274- On the style of addressing letters see J.C.
Greenfield, Irano-Judaica,
4-1 1 (esp. 4-71-
275. Judharz is known in the Greek sources under the form
Gotarzes. The
first king by this name ruled ca. 91-87 B.C.; Gotarzes II
ruled ca. A.D. 38-51.
276. The name occurs in the Greek sources as Vologeses,
and it has the form
wigs in the Middle Iranian inscriptions. There were five
kings by this name
among the Arsacids. The last Vologeses, who preceded
Artabanus V, ruled ca.
A.D. 207-227. See Frye, History, 360. On the forms of the
name see T. Noldeke, ZDMG, 28 (1874), 93-102, esp. 94b
277. The Roman name of al-Hadr was Hatra. It was an
important caravan
center and the place of a local Arab semi-independent
state in the Parthian period, in the Jazirah area of Iraq. See LeStrange,
Lands, 98L; Ef, s.v. al-Hadr;
CHI 3(1), 49off., 594ff-
98
The Ancient Kingdoms
an area between the Sawad and the Jazirah. This man marched
at their head until he encountered the king of the Romans. He
slew the king of the Romans and plundered his camp. That was
an incentive for the Romans to found Constantinople and to
transfer the capital from Rome to that place. It was founded by
the emperor Constantine, the first to embrace Christianity . 278
He banished the remaining Israelites from Palestine (Filastin)
and Jordan (al-Urdunn ) 279 because, as he asserted, they had
slain Isa. Constantine found the wooden cross upon which
they believed Christ had been crucified, and the Romans subsequently
revered it and placed it
among their treasures, where it remains unto this day . 280
Persian rule continued to break down until the rise of
Ardashlr. Hisham mentions what I have stated on his
authority, but he does not state the duration of the Persian
empire.
Other authorities on Persian history report that after
Alexander the empire of Darius was ruled by those who were
not of the Persian dynasty. Nevertheless, they deferred to the
one who ruled the mountainous area, and they showed loyalty
to him.
278. Valerian, who ruled A.D. 253-259, was treacherously
seized at a parley,
and died as captive in the hands of the Persians.
Constantinople became a capital in A.D. 330. Constantine ruled A.D. 306-337.
279. The medieval boundaries do not correspond to those
of modern times.
Jordan (Urdunn) refers here to territories on both sides
of the river. See
LeStrange, Palestine, index, 602; El 2 , s.v. Filastin.
280. It is usually connected with the name of Saint Helen
(d. ca. A.D. 328),
the wife of Constantius I Chlorus. It was also claimed
that the cross had been
found during the construction of Constantine's church on
Golgotha.
The Arsacid (Ashaghan) Kings
The Arsacid kings were addressed as regional princes ( muluk
al-tawa'if), and their rule lasted 266 years. 281 Ashak
b. Ashaghan ruled for ten of
these years. He was succeeded by Shapur
(Sabur) son of Ashaghan who reigned for sixty years. In the
forty-first year of his reign, Isa arose in the land of Palestine.
Some forty years after the ascension of Isa, Titus, the son of
Vespasian the Roman emperor, attacked Jerusalem, slew the
people of the city, and took their progeny prisoners. Upon his
order, the city was demolished so that no stone remained upon
another.
(Then the following Arsacids ruled): Judharz son of Ashaghan
the Elder, ten years; Bizan,
twenty-one years; Judharz,
nineteen years; Narsi, forty years; Hurmuz, seventeen years;
Ardawan, twelve years; Chosroes, forty years; Balash, twenty-
four years; Ardawan the Younger thirteen years. Then came
the reign of Ardashlr, the son of Babak.
Others say that after Alexander, Persia was ruled by the regional
princes, among whom Alexander divided the realm. In
each region a prince asserted himself from the time he was
appointed, except in the Sawad which for fifty-four years after
Alexander's death was in the hands of the Greeks (Rum). Among
281. The actual length of Arsacid rule was about twice as
long as that. See
above n. 270.
IOO
The Ancient Kingdoms
the regional princes was one of royal descent appointed to
alJibal and Isbahan. Later his progeny seized the Sawad and ruled
it, as well as al-Mahat , 282 al-Jibal and Isbahan, as chiefs of
the
other regional princes. It was customary to cite this chieftain
and his sons first; therefore only they are mentioned by name
in the historical accounts.
They say that Isa was born in Jerusalem, fifty-one years
after the rise of the regional rulers. Their reign lasted from
Alexander to the rise of Ardashir, a total of some 266 years. Among
the princes who ruled over al-Jibal and whose progeny succeeded
in seizing the Sawad, was Ashak b. Harah b. Raslban b. Artashakh
b. Hurmuz b, Saham b, Zarin b. Isfandiyar b. Bishtasb.
The Persians assert that Ashak was the son of Darius.
Some say he was Ashak, the son of Ashakan the Great, of the
progeny of Kayabiwah b. Kayqubadh, and that he reigned for
ten years.
After him, there ruled (in the following order): Ashak b.
Ashak b. Ashakan, twenty-one years; Shapur (Sabur) b. Ashak
b. Ashakan, thirty years; Judharz the Elder b. Shapur b. Ashakan,
ten years; BIzan b. Judharz, twenty-one years; Judharz the
Younger b. Bizan, nineteen years; Narsi (Narsah) b. Judharz the
Younger, forty years; Hurmuz b. Balash b. Ashakan, seventeen
years; Ardawan the Elder b. Ashakan, twelve years; Chosroes
b. Ashakan, forty years; Bihafarld, the Arsacid, nine years;
Balash, the Arsacid, twenty-four years. It is said that Ardawan
the Younger b. Balash b. Firuz b. Hurmuz b. Balash b. Shapur
(Sabur) b. Ashak b. Ashakan the Elder, whose grandfather was
Kayabiwah b. Kayqubadh, 183 was the greatest of the Arsacid
rulers in power and victory, and the most famous and mighty
in subduing the regional princes. It is also said that he seized
the district of Istakhr since it was adjacent to Isbahan. Then he
set out for Jur 284 and other points in Fars which he seized.
282. Al-Mahat is a late Iranian form (with Arabic plural
ending) of what was
called in earlier times Mada, i.e., Media. Geographically
it is identical with
Jibal, and Isbahan is an important town within that
district.
283. This list is summarized in Justi, Iran Nb, 413,
parallel with other lists
given in several different sources.
284. Jur (in Persian Gor) is the old name of what was
later called Firuzab.id,
in the district of Fars. See LeStrangc, Lands, 2 5 sf.;
CHI 3(2), 75 1 -
The Arsacid (Ashaghan) Kings
IOI
Their rulers submitted to him, for the rulers of the regions
were in awe of him. He reigned thirteen years after which
Ardashir's reign began.
Others say that after Alexander, Iraq and the area between
Syria and Egypt were ruled by ninety kings over ninety entities,
all submitting to the ruler in al-Mada’in that is, the
Arsacids. Among the Arsacid rulers were: Pakoros (Afqurshah)
b. Balash b. Shapur (Sabur) b. Ashakan b. Ash the Great (al-
Jabbar) b. Siyawakhsh b. Kayqawus the King, sixty-two years;
Shapur (Sabur) b. Afqur, in whose days Christ and John the
Baptist lived, fifty-three years; Judharz b. Shapur b. Afqur, who
attacked the Israelites to avenge the death of the Baptist, and
whose reign lasted fifty-nine years; Abzan, his nephew, the son
of Balash b. Shapur, forty-seven years; Judharz b. Abzan b.
Balash, thirty-one years; his brother Narsi b. Abzan, thirty-four
years,- his paternal uncle al-Hurmuzan b. Balash, forty-eight
years; his son al-Firuzan b. al-Hurmuzan b. Balash, thirty -nine
years,- his son Chosroes b. al-Firuzan, forty-seven years,- his son
Ardwan b. Balash, the last of them, was slain after a reign of
fifty-five years by Ardashir b. Babak.
The reign of Alexander and of the various regional princes
lasted approximately 523 years.
285. Al-Mada’in, which literally means "the
towns," is a name which continues a similar designation current in the
Sasanian period (it is preserved, e.g.,
in Greek). The term designates a group of towns on the
Tigris River. Chief
among them were Ctesiphon, which served as an important
center of government in the Sasanian period, and Seleucia. An important Jewish center
existed
in the town of Mahoza, which formed part of the same
complex. See LeStrange,
Lands, 33ff. The relevant sources are given with detailed
discussions in A.
Oppenheimer, Babylonia fudaica, i79ff.
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